CLASSIFICATION

When we classify things, we put them into categories, groups, divisions. Example: Ways of cooking:bake, broil, steam, roast, BBQ, poach, etc; people according to personality: motivator, helper, enthusiast, romantic, skeptic, leader, peacemaker, thinker, reformer, (from http://www.9types.com types. com); transportation ; cars, lorries, buses, ships, airplanes. Cars can further be divided into the following categories: MPV,, hatchback, sedan, sportscar, SUV or jeep, limousine, stationwagon, etc.

When we classify something, we gather it into a type, kind, or category according to a single basis of division. First the writer begins a classification paragraph by clearly stating what group of people or things will be classified. Next, he or she decides how many categories they will be divided into and describes those categories. Traditional expressions in classification paragraphs stressing divisions and categories use the following transitional expressions: can be divided, can be classified, can be categorized, the first type, the second kind, and the last category.

Example paragraph:

Creating and enjoying a window box garden on your windowsill can be a rewarding experience for all kinds of gardeners. The first type of gardener to enjoy this kind of garden would be the beginning gardener. For the beginner it provides a bite-sized area in which to develop design ideas. Next, for the urban gardener or the apartment dweller, window boxes are a way to stay in touch with the natural cycle of growing things. Finally, there are the people who are lucky enough to have a patch of land to plant. For them window boxes add extra gardening space, as well as a finishing touch to the home landscape. Even if you do not have an appropriate window, window boxes will flourish on balconies, stairways or right on the ground.

What is the topic of the paragraph?

window box gardens

What is the author's opinion of the topic?

Creating and enjoying a window box garden on your windowsill can be a rewarding experience for all kinds of gardeners.

What are the supporting details?

1. The first kind of gardener to enjoy a window box garden is the beginning gardener.
2. The second kind of gardener to enjoy a window box garden is the urban gardener.
3. The last kind of gardener to enjoy a window box garden is the landowner.
These are the three categories of people who would enjoy a windowsill garden.

COMPARISON AND CONTRAST

In this type of paragraph, subjects such as people, place, things and others are compared, contrasted or both compared and contrasted. The supporting details of the paragraph illustrate how the subjects are alike (comparison) or different (contrasted), using sequential words or phrases, known as connectors or transition markers such as : alike, the same, similar in/to, resembles, different in/from, unlike, the opposite, while and so on. This format is often used in academic texts to give information about objects, events or actions that are similar or different. Remember that comparison means stating or describing the similarities and contrast states or describes the differences.

Here's a very simple example:

The twins are similar in their physical appearance but are different in character (topic sentence/main idea). The elder one is quiet and studious while the younger one is outgoing. The older one loves reading and watching television while the younger one loves outdoor activities. Both like the same types of food.

(From Reading Skills and Techniques for Better Reading Comprehension, by Rose Tunku Ismail)

The words in bold are the signal words.

Now lets compare and contrast two movies or two TV series of the same genre. Look for the website for the two movies or TV series and link it to your blog. Look for the differences or similarities or both. You could compare other subjects beside the ones I recommended as long as they appear in World Wide Web.

Here are two reality TV series, Survivor and Amazing Race , that you can compare and/or contrast.

Which of the two is a better series in your opinion? Why?

DEFINITION

The definition paragraph or essay simply defines something for example a certain term, e.g. El-nino, psycholinguistics, democracy , etc. It clarifies and/or explains the meaning of the topic. Let's look at the definition of the word diva .

Exanple paragraph:

Psychologists and educators are familiar with the term positive and negative reinforcements. Reinforcement in psychology means to increase the probability or a response to a stimulus by giving a reward or punishment (in various form). In positive reinforcement, a child is rewarded for work well done by verbal praises, a star in his/her exercise book or a reward (perhaps of monetary value). In negative reinforcement, a child is continually scolded or criticized for not doing his/her work well. This child may even be punished (perhaps) by canning) or the withdrawal of privileges (perhaps not allowed to watch television).

What is the topic of the paragraph?

Reinforcement: positive and negative

What is main idea of the paragraph?

In psychology there are two types of reinforcements.

What are the supporting details?

1. In positive reinforcement, a child is rewarded for work well done by verbal praises, a star in his/her exercise book or a reward
2. In negative reinforcement, a child is continually scolded or criticised for not doing his/her work well

CAUSE AND EFFECT

A cause and effect paragraph or passage you will learn either why something happened or what had happened as a result of something. The writer may explain conditions or events that cause a certain situation or may discuss conditions or events that result from a situation. Cause and effect are important in much of the scientific and technical material you will read in college. As those of you who study science already know, many scientific discoveries were made because of scientist studied cause and effect in natural events.

If the writer tells why something happened, and what happened because of something, or what might happen because of something, you can expect reasons to explain causes or effects. Look for word clues: because, since, as a result, therefore, consequently, so. Remember that many causes can contribute to a single situation and that many effects can grow from a single cause.

In our everyday life we frequently consider causes. For instance, we avoid eating food that smells bad or touching something that is glowing hot, because we know what effect tainted food or red-hot objects will have on us. So also, when we read a passage, we can look for reasons (causes) behind events described (effects).

Lets look at the following paragraph:

Why does a person turn to a life of crime? There is no simple answer, but psychologists believe that some clues lie in the early life of the criminal. A child raised in an unhappy home, or by a strict parent or parent substitute, or a child raise in poverty runs the risk more than other of turning against the law. Some investigators believe that there is something in the basic personality which forces someone into crime. Several people suggests that is a feature of the genes - something within the human cell tissue - that determines criminal action. And, of course, there is solid evidence to suggest that pressures of present-day society give rise to crime. Even an unlikely type for crime might turn to it because he or she is unable to face the hectic pace and style of life our present age demands.

The author is trying to give the causes of one turning into crime. The causes suggested are genes, poverty, bad upbringing and childhood, and pressure of modern society, The author however does not say one cause is more important than the others.

Do you agree with the reasons given in the passage? Do you think genes can be blamed for someone turning to crime? Are there any other causes that you think could be included?

PATTERNS OF ORGANIZATION

We all have begun to read something and then, because we couldn't tell how the author was developing the idea or couldn't identify the overall patterns of organization, we would lose the train of thought, get frustrated, and start over again. Sometimes we just quit reading.

The author's way of arranging the material to best accomplish his or her purpose and to express the ideas clearly is called the pattern of organization. You need to be aware of this organization because if you recognize the method of development the author employs, you can think along with the author and you are less likely to lose the main point, get frustrated, waste time , or quit reading.

Types of Prose Writing

Nonfiction writing is generally divided into four modes or types

1. Narration. The most easily recognized kind of writing is called narration because the writer is narrating events, either in real or imagined, in chronological order and in much the same way a storyteller might. Typically, the writer starts at the beginning of some event and tells what happens until the event is concluded.


2. Description. The purpose of descriptive writing is to describe a specific person, thing, or place. The writer attempts to paint a picture using words that are sensory in nature, that appeal to the reader's senses. In descriptive writing the reader's dominant impression is one of concrete details referring to shapes, colors, sights, sounds, smells, tastes.


3. Persuasion. In persuasive writing the writer is attempting to persuade you of something, to change your mind. the writer makes every effort to convince you what he or she is saying is believable and that you should act on it. We see persuasive writing all the time in editorials and in advertisements, but we are barraged with it at election time when the candidates present their views. Persuasive writing relies heavily on appeals to reason and appeals to emotions. A related type of writing is argumentation, which refers to writing that sets up logically valid arguments that can be used in defense of a specific argument.


4. Exposition. Expository writing is the most common type of writing that you will be reading in college. It is writing that attempts to lay out information for you, to explain something to to you, to expose something as clearly as possible. It is factual writing. expository writing may employ elements of narration, description, and persuasion, but its overwhelming objective is to present information as clearly as possible.

Within each of these major types of writing, writers employ a variety of organizational patterns. It is important to be able to recognize these patterns.

Common Overall Patterns of Organization and Their Clue Words

Even though most reading materials a college student is required to read are expository prose-that is, written to inform or to explain something - within that exposition different patterns of organization are applied. The pattern a writer chooses can vary greatly, but in well-written material it is recognizable. The pattern in most textbooks is likely to be either:

• cause and effect - showing how something occurs because of other factors


• comparison and contrast - pointing out likeness and differences among ideas and events


• time order - putting facts and events into a sequence


• statement and clarification - statement of a fact or problem followed by discussion or solution intended to make things clear


• simple listing/process - enumeration, in order, of facts, events, and ideas


• addition - providing more pieces of information


• location or spatial order - focusing on the whereabouts of something.


• definition - emphasis on meaning of a word, phrase, idea


• summary - condensed statement of the principal points in a larger statement or idea


• generalization and example: statement with examples designed to illustrate or clarify the statement


• classification - analysis of where events, ideas, or facts fit in with other events, ideas, and facts.

Other patterns are used too. To increase your comprehension of the works you read, become aware of the twelve commonly used organizational patterns.

Although authors generally follow one overall organization when they write, they often mix their patterns to accomplish their objectives more easily and more efficiently. Finding both comparison and contrast mingled is very common, as is mixing definition and classification. Don't be alarmed if when reading a piece of writing you see an author moving from one pattern to a different one, or combining two patterns. That you are able to spot this combination indicates you are successful in this important technique in reading comprehension. It doesn't matter which pattern an author uses as long as you recognize it.

What to look out for:

Be aware of two things:

1. Often students confuse the clue words and attribute them to the wrong pattern of organization. Be clear about the patterns and which clue words go with each.


2. The summary pattern is especially confusing because often authors employ summary in their organization, but does not necessarily mean the pattern is summary. The author's overall pattern may be, for example, definition.

IMPLIED MAIN IDEA IN LONGER PASSAGES

The implied main idea of a longer passage is the same as the thesis statement in your essay. To imply the main idea of the entire passage you first detect the topic. Then you decide on the main idea or the gist of each paragraph. Consequently, you try to decide on a general statement that would represent all or a majority of the main ideas of the paragraphs.

Let's look at the passage titled Defining the Government's Role in Health Care in your handout. To determine the main idea of this passage, we first decide on the topic. In this article, the topic is alreadly stated in the title itself and that is the role of the the US government in the health care program.

The 1st paragraph talks about how the health care system began in the US right after the Civil War hundreds of years ago.

The 2nd paragraph tells us about the US government's efforts in the health care system. However, the efforts were opposed by mainly by the American Medical Association (AMA).

The 3rd paragraph describes to us more efforts by the US government in shaping the health care system with program such as the Medicare and Medicaid. However, even with these programs, AMA, hospitals and private insurance company were able to limit the government's role to only as a bill payer and no roles in shaping the system or controlling cost. As a result these two programs are very costly.

The last paragraph continues to describe more problems with the health care system in America.

Looking at the all the paragraphs and the topic, the main idea of this paragraph can be stated as such:

The role of the US government in the health care system is limited due to many oppositions from various parties and has led to some problems.

Explanation:

1. As the title suggests the topic is about the role of the US government's in its health care system.
2. Paragraphs 2 and 3 tell us about the oppositions from various parties on the government's role in the system.
3. The last paragraph talks about the problems of the US health care systems.
4. Paragraph 1 is merely an introduction, thus, its main idea is not necessary to be included.

Of course there are other ways of stating the main idea. Please try to come out with one.

Please read the following article by Suraya Al-Attas. In your blog state the main idea and describe how you came out with your statement. Read your friends' entry on this and post your comments.

MAKING INFERENCES

Making inferences is important in our daily lives. A very simple example is when you see storm clouds, you might infer that it will rain. Inferencing in reading is making an informed guesswork in which the reader makes judgments about the author's meaning. You must read 'between the lines'. It should be stressed that the inferences you make must be based on the clues given in the sentence or passage. Now let's try a few exercises

Passage

Saudi Arabia must import sand. This may seem strange, because most of the country is desert. But desert sand is too coarse to use in building. Building materials must be mixed with fine sand to make strong cement blocks. It would be too difficult to grind up the desert sand so that it could be used. Therefore, the Saudis must import river sand from Scotland.

Which of the following statement can you infer from the passage

A. Scottish sand is finer than Saudi Arabian sand

B. Scottish sand is more useful for building than Saudi Arabian sand.

C. Sand is necessary in making cement.

D. The Saudis export their p wown sand to other countries.

E. Saudi Arabia has no little or no river sand

F. Saudi Arabia has no water

Statements A, B, C and E are safe inferences to make since there are evidence in the passage to support them. Statements D and F cannot be inferred since they are illogical statements.One of the best ways to practice making inferences is to look at pictures and cartoons especially those without dialogues. Look at this sketch above by Datuk Lat. What message can you infer from Lat is trying to deliver here?

Now I would like you to add a picture or a cartoon that provide a lot of rooms for making many inferences in your blog. Please visit each other's blog and provide comments in the form of inferences on the cartoons or pictures your friends have posted. Here are two websites where you can download cartoons, LatHouse and Cartoon.com. For some exercises on inferencing go to Exercises on Main Ideas and Inferencing link.

Inferences is a process by which readers use hints to gather information. In making inference you go beyond surface details and ‘read between the lines’ to reach information logically.Because authors do not state every bit of information in a writing, we must supply our own information from details or ideas that only suggested by the writers.

Example – Decide which statement can be inferred and which cannot be inferred.

After lunch Diane took her bike and sneaked quietly into the yard. She moved carefully to the plot of soil under the oak in the back of the house as she checked to see that nobody watched her. She leaned her bicycle against the tree and bent down. All around dark clouds rumbled noisily in the sky: a streak of yellow zig-zagged far away, and she trembled. Digging swiftly in the hot earth, she made a small hole and quickly took a crushed ten-dollar bill from her pocket. After she slipped the money into the ground she covered it, she breathed deeply and smiled. She was glad that was over! Now no one would find it or know how she got it. Certainly it would be there later when she wanted it.

Diane is A. a child nine or ten years old B. a young mother C. a child 3 or 4 years old.

About the money, Diane probably A. got it as a gift from her father B. earned it C. got it in a suspicious way

This event probably took place A. on a snowy winter afternoon B. before a summer afternoon C. one night during Easter.

After she hides the money, Diane feels A. very guilty and sorry B. relieved C. worried that someone saw her.

Answers

Diane is A. a child nine or ten years old B. a young mother C. a child 3 or 4 years old.
A.
Actions are too advanced, too immature to bury money

About the money, Diane probably A. got it as a gift from her father B. earned it C. got it in a suspicious way

C
Sneaked into the yard and looked to see if anybody is around

This event probably took place A. on a snowy winter afternoon B before a summer afternoon C. one night during Easter.
B
Noisy clouds, the streak of yellow – storm is coming , hot earth

After she hides the money, Diane feels A. very guilty and sorry B. relieved C. worried that someone saw her.
B
Deep breath, “she was glad that was over

Did you know that the fats in our bodies, which we try so hard to get rid of through exercising and surgery, have a function? That the fat cells fight and never die? That exercising is better than dieting? That 70 percent of your calories are burned while you rest?

Fat is increasingly harmful to your health as you age.
Cannot be inferred.

There is more to fat than meets the eye (a pun)
Can be inferred – 1st and 2nd sentences

Understanding our bodies is important for good health.
Can be inferred

The more you rest, the faster your calories will be burned off.
Cannot be inferred.

Another cause of business failure is lack of capital. Typically, owners of small business start out using all their own savings and borrowing as much as they can; still they often have too little money to carry them through the first critical year, when sale are likely to be small. Banks are not eager to lend money to new and unproved firms. When they do, interest rates are likely high. Suppliers are seldom willing to advance much merchandise or raw materials until good credit ratings have been built.

Play it safe and don’t go into business.
Cannot be inferred.

Running our own business is a risky business at least.
Can be inferred

You can never have enough capital reserves.
Cannot be inferred – ‘can never have’

Borrowing as much as possible is a good way to protect your new business from failure.
Cannot be inferred.

For years we’ve heard that Johnny can’t read. According to a recent international survey by the National Geographic Society, it seems that Johnny also has no idea where he is. The society tested the geographical knowledge of 10,280 people, including 1,116 Americans. Adults in the United States tied for sixth place with Great Britain; only Italy and Mexico scored lower. Americans between the ages of 18-24 were more geographically ignorant than any other group in the survey.

People don’t like geography.
Cannot be inferred – a hasty generalization

We should stop teaching geography because no one learns it anyway.
Cannot be inferred. – not the intention of the paragraph

We are teaching less geography in our schools.
Can be inferred.

There is less demand (need) to know geography nowadays.
Can be inferred.

Estimates are that the world’s industries produce 400 million tons of waste each year, 60 percent of which comes from the United States. And the NIMBY (“Not In My Backyard”) movement spreads here and in Western Europe, more and more of it is being shunted off (to move off) to poor countries which desperately need hard currency (hard cash).

Other countries don’t mind disposing of US industrial waste.
Can be inferred – poor countries

Poor countries will continue to act as waste dumping grounds until those countries become economically sound.
Can be inferred – last sentence

It is better to dump waste in other countries than in our own.
Cannot be inferred.

The waste in the US will continue to increase in the next few years.
Cannot be inferred. – not stated/implied in the passage